Moreover, the clinical literature has been criticized for using executive functioning tests that are not cognitively informed according to contemporary advancements ( Snyder et al., 2015). In particular, converging evidence questions the construct validity ( Redick & Lindsey, 2013) and structural organization ( Friedman & Miyake, 2016) of common neuropsychological tests used to assess working memory. Recent critiques of the clinical literature, however, raise questions about conclusions regarding working memory’s association with psychopathology ( Snyder et al., 2015). In addition, impaired working memory has been implicated in hyperactive behavior ( Rapport et al., 2009), inattention ( Kofler et al., 2010), and mind wandering ( Kane et al., 2007), and may be etiologically important for a broad range of psychopathologies including schizophrenia ( Goldman-Rakic, 1994), depression ( Joormann & Gotlib, 2008), and ADHD ( Kasper et al., 2012). Working memory abilities have been found to directly or indirectly support myriad educational, occupational, and functional outcomes as diverse as impulse control ( Raiker et al., 2012), delay tolerance ( Patros et al., 2015), and skill in strategy-based games such as chess and bridge ( Baddeley, 2007). Working memory is a limited capacity system that involves the updating, manipulation/serial reordering, and dual-processing of internally-held information for use in guiding behavior ( Baddeley, 2007 Shelton et al., 2010 Unsworth et al., 2010).

Digit span subtest norms by age